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Institute for Security Studies

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Namestring
Institute for Security Studies
Legal namestring
Institute for Security Studies
Websiteurl
issafrica.org
Company typeenum
Private
Founded yearint
1991
Descriptiontext

The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) is an independent African non-profit research institute founded in 1991 and headquartered in Pretoria, South Africa, with regional offices in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) hosting the African Centre for Peace and Security Training, and Dakar (Senegal) covering West Africa and the Sahel. The organization produces evidence-based policy research, analysis, and training on peace, security, and governance issues affecting the African continent, serving African governments, regional bodies such as the African Union Peace and Security Council, security practitioners, civil society, and academic researchers.

ISS operates a portfolio of interconnected research products. Core publications include the daily ISS Today analysis series, the Peace and Security Council Report, Policy Briefs, Monographs, Books, and an Africa Report series covering five sub-regions (Central, East, North, Southern, and West Africa). Specialized sub-brands include African Futures — which uses the third-party International Futures (IFs) forecasting platform for development scenario modeling — Crime Hub for crime data, and ENACT for organized crime research. The organization also publishes two peer-reviewed academic journals (African Security Review and South African Crime Quarterly) and delivers training through the Training for Peace Programme and ACPST. Multimedia distribution occurs via the ISS website, ISS Live video seminars, infographics, YouTube (ISSAfricaTV), and email newsletters.

ISS is funded by development partner grants from foundations and governments rather than commercial revenue. The core Partnership Forum comprises the Hanns Seidel Foundation, the European Union, Open Society Foundations, and the governments of Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden, with additional support from entities such as GIZ, UNSCAR, the International Organisation of La Francophonie, and the Bosch Foundation. All research, analysis, and training outputs are provided free of charge to target audiences. The organization is governed by a Board of Trustees; founder Dr Jakkie Cilliers serves as Chairman and Head of African Futures & Innovation, and Executive Director Fonteh Akum announced his departure in January 2026 alongside the institute's 35th anniversary.

Short descriptiontext

The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) is an independent African non-profit research institute founded in 1991, headquartered in Pretoria with offices in Addis Ababa and Dakar. It produces policy analysis, training, and research on peace, security, and governance for African governments, the African Union, security practitioners, and civil society.

Operating statusenum
Operating
Ownership categoryenum
Headcount rangeband
101–250
akta.pro rankint
HeadquartersPretoria, South Africa
HQ citystring
Pretoria
HQ countrystring
South Africa
HQ regionstring
Africa
Markets served

Serves global market

Offices3 records

Each record includes

City, Country, Type, Description, Source

Keyword5 values
security research, peace and security, policy analysis, conflict prevention, security training
Industry3 codes
1Security Governance, Risk & Compliance (GRC) Advisory
CodeBPAKADAGPrimaryYes
2Security Risk Assessment, Auditing & Security Consulting Training
CodeBPAKAOAHPrimaryNo
3Cyber Defense & Information Security (National Security)
CodeBPAIAHAEPrimaryNo
NAICS code3 codes
  • National Security928110
  • Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools611310
  • National Security and International Affairs9281
SIC code2 codes
  • Services-Engineering, Accounting, Research, Management8700
  • Services-Educational Services8200
Product category
Policy Research and Security Analysis
GTM motion1 record

Each record includes

Type, Description, Source

Revenue model1 record
1Development Partner Grants
TypeManaged Services
Description

The ISS receives funding from development partners including foundations, governments, and the European Union to support its research, training, and policy engagement activities across Africa.

issafrica.org
Marketing channels7 records

Each record includes

Title, Type, Stage, Description, Source

Distribution channels4 records

Each record includes

Title, Type, Scope, Target buyer, Description, Source

Cost components5 values
Personnel, Operations, Technology or R&D, Marketing or Sales, Others
GTM typeB2B
B2B
Offering typeServices
Services
Brand1 of 4 records shown
1ISS Today
Description

Daily analysis of Africa's current peace and security issues

issafrica.org
+3 more records
Core offering1 text field

The Institute for Security Studies is an independent African non-profit research institute that produces evidence-based analysis, policy briefs, regional reports, and academic publications on peace, security, and governance across Africa. It also delivers capacity-building training for peace operations personnel through the African Centre for Peace and Security Training (ACPST) and the Training for Peace Programme, and runs specialized platforms such as African Futures (scenario modeling), Crime Hub, and ENACT (organised crime research).

Differentiator
Functional benefit
Problem solved
Quantifiable outcome1 of 2 values shown
  • Published daily ISS Today articles on current African peace and security issues
+1 more record
Product overview1 text field

The Institute for Security Studies operates as a research and policy institute offering a platform of interconnected research products and training services focused on African peace and security. The core offerings include ISS Today (daily analysis articles), the Peace and Security Council Report, Policy Briefs, Regional Reports (covering Central, East, North, Southern, and West Africa), Monographs, and Books. Specialized sub-brands include African Futures (futures modeling and scenario analysis), Crime Hub (crime data platform), ENACT (organised crime research), and the African Centre for Peace and Security Training (ACPST). The institute also produces multimedia content through ISS Live videos, Infographics, and publishes two academic journals: the South African Crime Quarterly and African Security Review. Training programs are delivered through Training for Peace. All offerings collectively serve policymakers, researchers, and security professionals working on African peace, governance, and security challenges.

Scale indicator4 records

Each record includes

Type, Value, Description, Source

Partnership2 partners
1Training for Peace Programme
Strategic tierCoreTypeStrategic or Co-development Partner
Description

Funded by the Government of Norway, the Training for Peace Programme supports ISS training activities for peace operations personnel across Africa, including AU peacekeepers.

issafrica.org
Strategic tierMinorTypeStrategic or Co-development Partner
Description

German development agency providing support for ISS events and activities.

Recent move6 records

Each record includes

Date, Type, Title, Description, Source

Expansion highlight6 records

Each record includes

Type, Description

Peers10 records
TypeDirect peer
Description

Pretoria-based foreign policy think tank producing research, policy analysis, and dialogue on African international affairs. Closely comparable to ISS in geography, mission, and audience, with overlapping governance and peace/security coverage.

TypeDirect peer
Description

U.S. Department of Defense-funded institute supporting African security sector development through research, academic programs, and outreach. Comparable as a pan-African security research and capacity-building institution, though funded by Washington rather than European donors.

TypeBroad incumbent
Description

London-based foreign affairs think tank with a substantial Africa programme covering security, governance, and political economy. Comparable in research methodology and policy advisory function but operates globally rather than Africa-exclusive.

TypeEmerging player
Description

Global think tank producing the Global Peace Index and research on peace, conflict, and violence. Comparable to ISS on peace measurement and policy benchmarking, with stronger quantitative methodology but weaker African on-the-ground presence.

TypeDirect peer
Description

Global conflict-prevention think tank producing independent analysis and policy prescriptions on wars and crises, including dedicated Africa programs. Highly comparable to ISS in mission, methodology, and target audience (governments and multilateral security bodies).

TypeBroad incumbent
Description

U.S.-based policy research organization with a dedicated Africa programme covering governance, security, and development. Comparable in producing high-quality African policy research, though part of a much broader global portfolio.

TypeRegional player
Description

West Africa-focused think tank headquartered in Abuja and Accra analysing governance, democracy, and security. Comparable to ISS on West African security and policy engagement, but lacks ISS's continental footprint.

TypeDirect peer
Description

Accra-based African training centre delivering courses in peace support operations, conflict management, and security. Directly comparable to ISS's Training for Peace Programme and ACPST as a security-sector capacity-building provider for AU member states.

TypeEmerging player
Description

Nairobi and London-based centre developing African leaders in peace, security, and development through graduate training and research. Comparable to ISS's Training for Peace Programme on leadership and capacity building, though younger and smaller.

TypeDirect peer
Description

Academic centre at Addis Ababa University focused on peace and security in Africa, offering MA programs, research, and policy advisory. Comparable to ISS on the African peace and security research, training, and policy engagement axis, with strong AU ties.

Market position
Strengths5 records

Each record includes

Headline, Details, Source

Weaknesses5 records

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Competitive moat5 records

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Type, Details

Key risks5 records

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Headline, Details, Source

Key highlights6 records

Each record includes

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Customer concentration

Classification, Details

Named customers3 records

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Name, Industry, Type, Use case, Source, UUID

Segment4 records

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Title, Type, Primary, Description, Pain point addressed, Use case, Source

Ideal customer profile3 records

Each record includes

Profile, Firmographic size, Sales motion, Sales cycle length, Buying structure, Purchase trigger, Buyer persona, Geography, Industry vertical, Primary use case, Description, Pain points, Evidence proof points, Target buyer

API detail
Has APIbool
No

Docs URL, Description

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Has app

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Subsidiaries1 record

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Each record includes

Round, Amount USD, Date, Pre money valuation, Total investors, Investors, News

Investors

Each record includes

Name, Type, Date of entry, Rounds participated, Website

Funding detail is available on the Subscription and Enterprise plan.Contact sales →

M&A

Each record includes

Name, Acquisition type, Announced date, Completed date, Status, Website, News

Investment

Each record includes

Name, Round, Announced date, Lead investor, Website, News

M&A and investment is available on the Subscription and Enterprise plan.Contact sales →

Institute for Security Studies

Policy Research and Security Analysisissafrica.org

The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) is an independent African non-profit research institute founded in 1991, headquartered in Pretoria with offices in Addis Ababa and Dakar. It produces policy analysis, training, and research on peace, security, and governance for African governments, the African Union, security practitioners, and civil society.

What Institute for Security Studies does

The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) is an independent African non-profit research institute founded in 1991 and headquartered in Pretoria, South Africa, with regional offices in Addis Ababa (Ethiopia) hosting the African Centre for Peace and Security Training, and Dakar (Senegal) covering West Africa and the Sahel. The organization produces evidence-based policy research, analysis, and training on peace, security, and governance issues affecting the African continent, serving African governments, regional bodies such as the African Union Peace and Security Council, security practitioners, civil society, and academic researchers.

ISS operates a portfolio of interconnected research products. Core publications include the daily ISS Today analysis series, the Peace and Security Council Report, Policy Briefs, Monographs, Books, and an Africa Report series covering five sub-regions (Central, East, North, Southern, and West Africa). Specialized sub-brands include African Futures — which uses the third-party International Futures (IFs) forecasting platform for development scenario modeling — Crime Hub for crime data, and ENACT for organized crime research. The organization also publishes two peer-reviewed academic journals (African Security Review and South African Crime Quarterly) and delivers training through the Training for Peace Programme and ACPST. Multimedia distribution occurs via the ISS website, ISS Live video seminars, infographics, YouTube (ISSAfricaTV), and email newsletters.

ISS is funded by development partner grants from foundations and governments rather than commercial revenue. The core Partnership Forum comprises the Hanns Seidel Foundation, the European Union, Open Society Foundations, and the governments of Denmark, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden, with additional support from entities such as GIZ, UNSCAR, the International Organisation of La Francophonie, and the Bosch Foundation. All research, analysis, and training outputs are provided free of charge to target audiences. The organization is governed by a Board of Trustees; founder Dr Jakkie Cilliers serves as Chairman and Head of African Futures & Innovation, and Executive Director Fonteh Akum announced his departure in January 2026 alongside the institute's 35th anniversary.

Institute for Security Studies firmographics

Firmographics
Name
Institute for Security Studies
Legal name
Institute for Security Studies
Website
https://issafrica.org
Company type
Private
Founded year
1991
Operating status
Operating
Headcount range
101–250 employees
Short description
The Institute for Security Studies (ISS) is an independent African non-profit research institute founded in 1991, headquartered in Pretoria with offices in Addis Ababa and Dakar. It produces policy analysis, training, and research on peace, security, and governance for African governments, the African Union, security practitioners, and civil society.
Ownership category
akta.pro rank

Institute for Security Studies industry classification

Industry
Product category
Policy Research and Security Analysis
NAICS
National Security (928110), Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools (611310), National Security and International Affairs (9281)
SIC
Services-Engineering, Accounting, Research, Management (8700), Services-Educational Services (8200)
akta.pro primary industry
Security Governance, Risk & Compliance (GRC) Advisory (BPAKADAG)
akta.pro secondary industries
Security Risk Assessment, Auditing & Security Consulting Training (BPAKAOAH), Cyber Defense & Information Security (National Security) (BPAIAHAE)

Keywords

  • Security research
  • Peace and security
  • Policy analysis
  • Conflict prevention
  • Security training

Where Institute for Security Studies is headquartered

Location

Headquarters

HQ city
Pretoria
HQ country
South Africa
HQ region
Africa

Offices3 records

Markets served

Institute for Security Studies business model

Business model
GTM type
B2B
Offering type
Services
Cost components
Personnel, Operations, Technology or R&D, Marketing or Sales, Others

Revenue model

  1. Development Partner Grants: The ISS receives funding from development partners including foundations, governments, and the European Union to support its research, training, and policy engagement activities across Africa.

Go-to-market motion1 record

Distribution channels4 records

Marketing channels7 records

Institute for Security Studies product offering

Product offering

Core offering

The Institute for Security Studies is an independent African non-profit research institute that produces evidence-based analysis, policy briefs, regional reports, and academic publications on peace, security, and governance across Africa. It also delivers capacity-building training for peace operations personnel through the African Centre for Peace and Security Training (ACPST) and the Training for Peace Programme, and runs specialized platforms such as African Futures (scenario modeling), Crime Hub, and ENACT (organised crime research).

Product overview

The Institute for Security Studies operates as a research and policy institute offering a platform of interconnected research products and training services focused on African peace and security. The core offerings include ISS Today (daily analysis articles), the Peace and Security Council Report, Policy Briefs, Regional Reports (covering Central, East, North, Southern, and West Africa), Monographs, and Books. Specialized sub-brands include African Futures (futures modeling and scenario analysis), Crime Hub (crime data platform), ENACT (organised crime research), and the African Centre for Peace and Security Training (ACPST). The institute also produces multimedia content through ISS Live videos, Infographics, and publishes two academic journals: the South African Crime Quarterly and African Security Review. Training programs are delivered through Training for Peace. All offerings collectively serve policymakers, researchers, and security professionals working on African peace, governance, and security challenges.

Differentiator

Problem solved

Functional benefit

Brands

  • ISS Today: Daily analysis of Africa's current peace and security issues
  • African Futures
  • Crime Hub
  • ENACT

Quantifiable outcome

  • Published daily ISS Today articles on current African peace and security issues
  • +1 more outcomes

Companies that use Institute for Security Studies

Customer profile

Named customers3 records

Segments4 records

Ideal customer profiles3 records

Institute for Security Studies technology and API

Technology

API detail

Has API
No
API docs
API detail

Core technology

AI maturity

App detail

Institute for Security Studies partnerships and signals

Strategic signal

Partnerships

Two partnerships are on record, tiered core and minor.

  • Training for Peace ProgrammecoreStrategic or Co-development PartnerFunded by the Government of Norway, the Training for Peace Programme supports ISS training activities for peace operations personnel across Africa, including AU peacekeepers.
  • GIZminorStrategic or Co-development PartnerGerman development agency providing support for ISS events and activities.

Scale indicators4 records

Recent moves6 records

Expansion highlights6 records

Institute for Security Studies competitors and assessment

Company assessment

Direct peers

  • South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA): Pretoria-based foreign policy think tank producing research, policy analysis, and dialogue on African international affairs. Closely comparable to ISS in geography, mission, and audience, with overlapping governance and peace/security coverage.
  • African Centre for Strategic Studies (ACSS): U.S. Department of Defense-funded institute supporting African security sector development through research, academic programs, and outreach. Comparable as a pan-African security research and capacity-building institution, though funded by Washington rather than European donors.
  • International Crisis Group: Global conflict-prevention think tank producing independent analysis and policy prescriptions on wars and crises, including dedicated Africa programs. Highly comparable to ISS in mission, methodology, and target audience (governments and multilateral security bodies).
  • Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC): Accra-based African training centre delivering courses in peace support operations, conflict management, and security. Directly comparable to ISS's Training for Peace Programme and ACPST as a security-sector capacity-building provider for AU member states.
  • Institute for Peace and Security Studies (IPSS), Addis Ababa University: Academic centre at Addis Ababa University focused on peace and security in Africa, offering MA programs, research, and policy advisory. Comparable to ISS on the African peace and security research, training, and policy engagement axis, with strong AU ties.

Broad incumbents

  • Chatham House (Royal Institute of International Affairs): London-based foreign affairs think tank with a substantial Africa programme covering security, governance, and political economy. Comparable in research methodology and policy advisory function but operates globally rather than Africa-exclusive.
  • Brookings Institution - Africa Growth Initiative: U.S.-based policy research organization with a dedicated Africa programme covering governance, security, and development. Comparable in producing high-quality African policy research, though part of a much broader global portfolio.

Emerging players

  • Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP): Global think tank producing the Global Peace Index and research on peace, conflict, and violence. Comparable to ISS on peace measurement and policy benchmarking, with stronger quantitative methodology but weaker African on-the-ground presence.
  • African Leadership Centre (ALC): Nairobi and London-based centre developing African leaders in peace, security, and development through graduate training and research. Comparable to ISS's Training for Peace Programme on leadership and capacity building, though younger and smaller.

Regional players

  • Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD): West Africa-focused think tank headquartered in Abuja and Accra analysing governance, democracy, and security. Comparable to ISS on West African security and policy engagement, but lacks ISS's continental footprint.

Market position

Strengths5 records

Weaknesses5 records

Competitive moat5 records

Key risks5 records

Key highlights6 records

Customer concentration

Institute for Security Studies social profiles

Digital presence

Institute for Security Studies financial estimates

Financial estimate

Revenue estimate

Valuation estimate

Institute for Security Studies leadership team

Management profile

Number of profiles

Institute for Security Studies subsidiaries and ownership

Company hierarchy

Subsidiaries1 record

Institute for Security Studies funding detail

Funding detail

Funding overview

Funding rounds

Investors

Funding detail is available on the Subscription and Enterprise plan.Contact sales →

Institute for Security Studies M&A and investment

M&A and investment

M&A

Investments

M&A and investment is available on the Subscription and Enterprise plan.Contact sales →

Frequently asked questions about Institute for Security Studies

What does Institute for Security Studies do?

The Institute for Security Studies is an independent African non-profit research institute that produces evidence-based analysis, policy briefs, regional reports, and academic publications on peace, security, and governance across Africa. It also delivers capacity-building training for peace operations personnel through the African Centre for Peace and Security Training (ACPST) and the Training for Peace Programme, and runs specialized platforms such as African Futures (scenario modeling), Crime Hub, and ENACT (organised crime research).

Is Institute for Security Studies a public or private company?

Institute for Security Studies is a private company. It is classified as nonprofit foundation owned and is currently operating.

When was Institute for Security Studies founded?

Institute for Security Studies was founded in 1991. It employs 101 to 250 people.

Where is Institute for Security Studies based?

Institute for Security Studies is headquartered in Pretoria, South Africa, in the Africa region.

How does Institute for Security Studies make money?

One revenue line is on record: development Partner Grants.

Who are Institute for Security Studies's main competitors?

Direct peers on record are South African Institute of International Affairs (SAIIA), African Centre for Strategic Studies (ACSS), International Crisis Group, Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC) and Institute for Peace and Security Studies (IPSS), Addis Ababa University. Broad incumbents are Chatham House (Royal Institute of International Affairs) and Brookings Institution - Africa Growth Initiative. Emerging players are Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP) and African Leadership Centre (ALC). Centre for Democracy and Development (CDD) is listed as a regional player.

Does Institute for Security Studies have an API?

No public API is recorded for Institute for Security Studies.

What industry is Institute for Security Studies in?

Institute for Security Studies's product category is Policy Research and Security Analysis. Its primary akta.pro industry code is BPAKADAG, Security Governance, Risk & Compliance (GRC) Advisory, with a secondary code of BPAKAOAH, Security Risk Assessment, Auditing & Security Consulting Training. Its NAICS code is 928110 and its SIC code is 8700.

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Live signals
EngineeringnewsAgri SA, Institute for Security Studies formalise commitment to combat rural crimeAgri SA and the Institute for Security Studies signed a memorandum of understanding to formalize their working relationship. They will collect, share, and jointly report on rural crime data, aiming to build credible evidence to identify root causes and shape responses with the South African Police Service and government.AllafricaAfrica: Is Democracy Africa's Path to Development? Jakkie Cilliers Isn't So SureJakkie Cilliers, founder of the Institute for Security Studies, argues in his book that democracy is not a panacea for Africa's development. He contends that low-income African countries should first achieve stability and strong institutions before gradually strengthening democracy, a view that has dismayed some opposition leaders.AllafricaAfrica Must Unlock the Capital Beneath Its Farmers' FeetAn analysis by Jakkie Cilliers, head of African Futures and Innovation at the Institute for Security Studies, argues that land tenure reform is Africa's priority, citing Hernando de Soto's "dead capital" concept and noting only 2%-10% of rural land is formally registered. The author calls for digitising customary rights, formalising long-term leases and long-term leasehold, and shifting focus from externally imposed governance templates to agricultural productivity.AllafricaSudan: How Sudan's War Is Destroying Its Development FutureA quantitative assessment by the UN Development Programme and Institute for Security Studies estimates that Sudan has lost $6.4 billion in 2023 alone due to the civil war that began in April 2023, with over 150,000 killed and nearly 15 million displaced, pushing average income back to 1992 levels and seven million more people into extreme poverty. The study warns that if the conflict persists until 2030, Sudan would incur an additional $34.5 billion in GDP losses and 34 million more people would fall into extreme poverty. The article emphasizes that ending the conflict is the most critical precondition for restoring livelihoods, rebuilding the economy, and reopening development pathways.MyJoyOnlineImmigrants contribute 9% to South Africa’s GDP despite making up 6.5% of population — ReportA report by the Institute for Security Studies and the University of Johannesburg found that immigrants constitute 6.5% of South Africa's population but contribute 9% to GDP and 5.3% of the labour market, with each immigrant worker generating approximately two jobs for locals. The research refuted widespread anti-immigrant claims, revealing that South Africans vastly overestimated immigrant numbers, believing there were 17 to 40 million when the actual figure is 3.95 million. The report attributed South Africa's social and economic challenges to poor governance and corruption, which costs the country an estimated R27 billion annually, rather than immigration.GlobalinitiativeAfrica Organised Crime Index 2025The 4th edition of the Africa Organised Crime Index reveals growth and consolidation in organised crime markets across Africa over the past decade, with resilience to crime remaining below the average. The index assesses 15 criminal markets, five types of criminal actors, and 12 resilience indicators for all 54 African countries. The launch event is co-hosted by several organizations, including the Institute for Security Studies and INTERPOL.AccordThirty Years of the Training for Peace Programme (1995–2025): Reflections on a Strategic Partnership – ACCORDThis retrospective article examines the 30-year trajectory (1995–2025) of the Training for Peace (TfP) programme, a capacity support mechanism established through a political conversation between Nelson Mandela and Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland to help African actors take greater responsibility for peace and security on the continent. The programme, composed of three implementing partners—African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD), Institute for Security Studies (ISS), and Norwegian Institute for International Affairs (NUPI)—has supported the African Union Commission (AUC) in policy development, police and civilian capacity enhancement, governance support, and strategic analysis. Key contributions include support to the African Standby Force, development of AU peace support operations doctrine, assistance during mission transitions such as AMISOM to ATMIS, and convening platforms for strategic reflection and coordination among continental institutions.ISS AfricaIllicit trade on inland waterways: the case of Lake TanganyikaThe article discusses the risks to Africa's Great Lakes, specifically Lake Tanganyika, from illicit trade and unsustainable human activities such as climate change and pollution. It highlights how shared borders and unequal access to transboundary resources can lead to insecurity along lake shores. The piece is authored by researchers from the Institute for Security Studies (ISS) and the Endangered Wildlife Trust.ISS Africa2025 index reveals surging organised crime and weakening defences across AfricaThe 2025 Africa Organised Crime Index, released on 17 November, reveals that organised crime has surged across the continent since 2019 while defensive resilience has weakened. The report, published by the Institute for Security Studies, INTERPOL, and the Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime, indicates that 92.5% of African nations have low resilience to these illicit activities.ISS AfricaBlack Axe puzzle in South Africa: layers of criminal culpabilityA study by the Institute for Security Studies reveals that Black Axe criminal operations in South Africa are driven by autonomous individuals and fluid syndicates rather than a centralized command structure. The research highlights that while illicit proceeds do not flow directly to the organization, its secrecy and global networks sustain these affiliates' activities.